How does individuality relate to emotional wellbeing?
All dogs are happiest when given the freedom and opportunity to express their individuality through species-specific, natural behaviour as well as their specific likes and dislikes. A dog’s individuality will influence every aspect of their life and needs to be taken into account in every care decision.
Dogs show some of the greatest individual variation compared to other animals. This is believed to have evolved alongside a close relationship with humans, as well as through selective breeding practices for certain physical and behavioural characteristics.1 So, different dogs have very diverse requirements (even within a breed), will enjoy different things and will need specific environments to enable them to express their ‘true selves’. Meeting your dog’s individual needs is a vital component of giving them optimum happiness and fulfilment.
In this section…
You will learn more about:
- Personality as a key contributor to individuality
- Personality Testing
- Is your dog's individuality shaped by nature or nurture?
- Choosing the right dog
- How to nurture your dog's individuality
- Individuality and agency
- Key Messages
Different lifestyles bring out the best in individual dogs
Here’s an example: a young Border Collie that thrives on mentally and physically stimulating activities may enjoy sports, like agility or flyball, that satisfy their natural drives. However, a senior Yorkshire Terrier that enjoys short walks, has no interest in a ball and prefers snuggling with their owner on the sofa would not appreciate or thrive on this regime.
So, as well as nurturing your dog’s individuality by tailoring decisions and actions about their lifestyle, you also need to be aware how individual variation in their emotional responses may dictate how your dog behaves. The exact same experiences for two dogs may be perceived very differently due to individual differences, including their inherent temperament and past experiences.
Individuality is clearly a complex, multifaceted topic influencing a...
Here’s an example: a young Border Collie that thrives on mentally and physically stimulating activities may enjoy sports, like agility or flyball, that satisfy their natural drives. However, a senior Yorkshire Terrier that enjoys short walks, has no interest in a ball and prefers snuggling with their owner on the sofa would not appreciate or thrive on this regime.
So, as well as nurturing your dog’s individuality by tailoring decisions and actions about their lifestyle, you also need to be aware how individual variation in their emotional responses may dictate how your dog behaves. The exact same experiences for two dogs may be perceived very differently due to individual differences, including their inherent temperament and past experiences.
Individuality is clearly a complex, multifaceted topic influencing almost every aspect of caring for your dog when looking to give them the happiest, most fulfilled life.
Key Terminology
Individuality
The combination of characteristics, personality traits, learned behaviours and temperament that is unique to each individual and distinguishes them from others of the same kind.3 The ways in which this combination of characteristics varies across a population is referred to as individual differences.
Personality
Consistent patterns in the way individuals behave, think, and feel.2,3 In dogs, variations in personality are often described using traits or dimensions such as excitability, fear, aggression, trainability, energy levels, and touch sensitivity.4 Personality is generally considered a combination of inherent temperament and experiences.
Trait
Internal dispositions that are relatively stable over time and independent across situations. In human psychology, a combination of traits is often used to describe an individual’s personality.5
Temperament
An individual’s inherited natural predisposition to react in a certain way to a stimulus.3,2
Agency
The capacity of your dog to make their own choices and act beyond the degree dictated by their momentary needs, including the propensity to engage actively with the environment to gather knowledge and enhance their skills for future use.6,7 For dogs, we often need to add richness and complexity to their environments and provide opportunities to solve novel challenges.
Personality as a key contributor to individuality
While not synonymous with your dog’s individuality, personality is an extremely important contributor to it. Human psychologists often describe distinct personality types, consisting of a few key traits. The ‘Big 5 Model’ is one such example, which assesses ‘openness’, ‘conscientiousness’, ‘extraversion’, ‘agreeableness’ and ‘neuroticism’. For each trait, an individual usually sits somewhere on a scale between the two extremes, for example at some point between ‘introverted’ or ‘extroverted’.8
Scientists have researched and proposed several models to describe canine personality, including an adaptation of four of the key ‘Big 5’ model. This incorporates the adapted traits of ‘energy’ (extraversion in humans), ‘affection’ (agreeableness), ’emotional reactivity’ (neuroticism) and ‘intelligence’ (openness).2 Though neuroticism and extraversion have been demonstrated to be similar in dogs to other species, a survey of over 1,000 pet owners suggested that traits such as ‘self-assuredness’ (or motivation), ‘training focus’, and ‘amicability’ may be exclusive to dogs and have developed through their unique relationship with humans over time.9 Another study of working dogs outlined five slightly different key personality traits of ‘playfulness’, ‘chase-proneness’, ‘curiosity/ fearlessness’, ‘sociability’ and ‘aggressiveness’.10
Individual dogs may have many traits –
and these shape their requirements for emotional wellbeing
Our knowledge of human psychology has been highly beneficial to developing an understanding of our dog’s personality, it may not give the full picture of canine individuality which is also influenced by other factors including breed, age, and environment.5 Past trauma is also likely to affect personality, with studies suggesting an increase in fearfulness and aggression.8 Even being reared in a commercial breeding facility or sold through a pet store can produce these effects in later life11. This highlights the role of positive socialisation in shaping your dog to become a well-adjusted adult (See Socialisation).
Understanding a dog’s personality is also important when choosing a dog to suit your current lifestyle. Failure to match these needs can lead to unwanted behaviour, neglect, and emotional distress. For example, for a dog with a high ‘prey drive’ (tendency to chase), who happens to live with p...
Our knowledge of human psychology has been highly beneficial to developing an understanding of our dog’s personality, it may not give the full picture of canine individuality which is also influenced by other factors including breed, age, and environment.5 Past trauma is also likely to affect personality, with studies suggesting an increase in fearfulness and aggression.8 Even being reared in a commercial breeding facility or sold through a pet store can produce these effects in later life11. This highlights the role of positive socialisation in shaping your dog to become a well-adjusted adult (See Socialisation).
Understanding a dog’s personality is also important when choosing a dog to suit your current lifestyle. Failure to match these needs can lead to unwanted behaviour, neglect, and emotional distress. For example, for a dog with a high ‘prey drive’ (tendency to chase), who happens to live with pet rabbits, cats or birds, isn’t just a safety risk to these animals, it’s also emotional torment if the dog doesn’t have an outlet for this natural behaviour (e.g., playing fetch).
Do our personalities match our dogs’?
You may have heard the saying that dogs and their owners look alike. Now research has shown that they may share personality traits too. A recent study showed that when owners were asked to rate their own personality traits as well as their dog’s, the majority were shared by both pet parent and dog! This was confirmed by an independent peer assessment of each dog to make sure the results weren’t biased by the owners’ potential to project themselves onto their pets.12 So, perhaps the old myth that dogs resemble their owners is not so farfetched and potentially indicates the strength of the dog-owner relationship.
Personality testing
How useful is it?
Personality or temperament testing is the assessment of a dog’s behavioural history and responses to different situations and stimuli. This is often to determine their suitability for rehoming and to match their personality with a compatible family. Personality or temperament testing may include interactions with dogs, people, and other animals such as cats, as well as environmental changes (such as noises, household objects, etc.). Most temperament tests assess dogs for sociability toward people, compatibility with other dogs and other pets, along with any aggressive behaviours.
Personality testing – how reliable is it?
The results of temperament testing have been shown to change even within a 24-hour period, depending on the method used and the person carrying out the assessment. This suggests that specific behaviours are being measured which may not always relate to a stable personality trait.13 A dog’s behaviour also tends to be different in a sheltered environment, compared to in the home.14 Animal behaviour experts are working to improve the reliability of temperament testing to improve our dog’s long-term emotional wellbeing by matching them with compatible homes.
Personality testing in theory
The C-BARQ (Canine Behavioral Assessment & Research Questionnaire is an example of an evaluation that can be useful in screening for certain behaviour and temperament traits in dogs to assess their suitability for rehoming, as well as providing information for potential owners looking to adopt.15 While not originally designed to assess personality, it is often described as a personality test and can give information about a dog’s personality type. The C-BARQ relies on owner or caregiver reports of a dog’s behaviour and examines 14 parameters including dog rivalry, trainability, energy levels and excitability and is widely used in canine research.
Personality tests in action
Dr. Amy Marder of the Center for Shelter Dogs, part of the Animal Rescue League of Boston, evaluates its dogs with the Match-Up II personality test. This test is designed to incorporate information from a dog’s behavioural history and behaviour in the shelter to match the needs of each dog with a suitable home. You can watch some fascinating videos and learn more about this programme at www.centerforshelterdogs.org.
Is your dog’s individuality shaped by nature or nurture?
Both genetics (nature) and life experiences (nurture) play a critical role in behaviour and the development of your dog’s individuality. We’ve put together a useful guide which covers this fascinating topic including ‘Understanding your dog’s unique genetics’ and you can download it below
Choosing the right dog
A dog’s individual personality, temperament and behaviour patterns need to fit in with your family’s lifestyle and should be among the main considerations when choosing your dog.
To give you the help you need, we’ve compiled a complete guide to help you pick out the perfect dog for your family – and make sure you’re the perfect family for that dog.
The guide includes:
• The best places to look for a dog
• The places it’s usually best to avoid
• Choosing the right dog from a breeder
• Choosing the right dog from a shelter or adoption centre
And don’t miss
• Our top 5 tips for picking out the right dog
How to nurture your dog’s individuality
Every dog is unique and will have different social, health-related, nutritional and environmental preferences and needs.
Discovering these preferences is the key to helping your dog express their individuality. You should celebrate your dog’s quirks – there’s no other dog like them!
Tailor socialisation
What type of social interactions, environments and situations does your dog enjoy? What makes them uncomfortable? Tailor social experiences to your dog’s unique preferences and helps recognise where they may need support to help them feel more relaxed.
Make individualised health choices
Your dog’s health needs and preferences will vary greatly depending on a variety of factors including their personality, life stage, sex and health status.
Providing preventative healthcare tailored to your dog’s individual needs is also critical to providing optimal care and nurturing physical and emotional wellbeing long term. Your dog may require protection against different types of parasites, depending on their lifestyle or environment, as well as vaccinations if they spend time travelling or visiting boarding kennels. By discussing your dog’s individual lifestyle and preferences with your veterinarian, they can help you to provide targeted healthcare advice to suit your dog’s unique needs.
As your dog grows older, their health needs and interests in different types of physical activity may change. So, it’s...
Your dog’s health needs and preferences will vary greatly depending on a variety of factors including their personality, life stage, sex and health status.
Providing preventative healthcare tailored to your dog’s individual needs is also critical to providing optimal care and nurturing physical and emotional wellbeing long term. Your dog may require protection against different types of parasites, depending on their lifestyle or environment, as well as vaccinations if they spend time travelling or visiting boarding kennels. By discussing your dog’s individual lifestyle and preferences with your veterinarian, they can help you to provide targeted healthcare advice to suit your dog’s unique needs.
As your dog grows older, their health needs and interests in different types of physical activity may change. So, it’s important to watch for changes in their behaviour and preferences to make sure their physical, mental and emotional needs continue to be met. See Health for more ideas on tailoring your healthcare for your dog’s unique needs.
Find the right diet to enrich your dog’s life
Nutrition is essential for physical health but is also a source of enjoyment for your dog and can be used to reinforce positive behaviours or encourage mental stimulation.
Your dog’s favourite foods can be used to reward and encourage enrichment activities like food puzzles, treat-dispensing toys, and scavenger hunts. You can also try offering your dog foods with different textures (e.g., wet or dry), flavours and smells. Understanding what your dog likes and doesn’t like will help shape new behaviour, improve the bond with your dog and assist you in recognising when something changes. For example, if your dog suddenly goes off a certain food or eats differently, this may be related to an underlying health issue or behavioural concern.
The key is balancing your ...
Nutrition is essential for physical health but is also a source of enjoyment for your dog and can be used to reinforce positive behaviours or encourage mental stimulation.
Your dog’s favourite foods can be used to reward and encourage enrichment activities like food puzzles, treat-dispensing toys, and scavenger hunts. You can also try offering your dog foods with different textures (e.g., wet or dry), flavours and smells. Understanding what your dog likes and doesn’t like will help shape new behaviour, improve the bond with your dog and assist you in recognising when something changes. For example, if your dog suddenly goes off a certain food or eats differently, this may be related to an underlying health issue or behavioural concern.
The key is balancing your dog’s preferences for what, when and how they are fed, with their physical requirements to stay healthy. You may think giving more treats is kind but if your dog is overweight, they are likely not physically, mentally or emotionally healthy.
See Nutrition for more information on how to get the right diet for your dog.
Create an environment that suits your dog
Developing an optimal enriched environment will depend on your dog’s age, temperament and physical capabilities, as well as your preferences.
Some dogs are better than others at coping in new or changing environments. Resilient dogs are less likely to experience stress and therefore will have better emotional wellbeing compared to others who may be sensitive to change. Balance is also essential – most dogs thrive on routine and predictability, but too much predictability is boring. You have to find the right balance for your dog.
It is also important to provide outlets for natural canine behaviour – even if they are not always considered as desirable to us humans. For example, by providing a digging pit or opportunities to smell new smells, or chew appropriate...
Developing an optimal enriched environment will depend on your dog’s age, temperament and physical capabilities, as well as your preferences.
Some dogs are better than others at coping in new or changing environments. Resilient dogs are less likely to experience stress and therefore will have better emotional wellbeing compared to others who may be sensitive to change. Balance is also essential – most dogs thrive on routine and predictability, but too much predictability is boring. You have to find the right balance for your dog.
It is also important to provide outlets for natural canine behaviour – even if they are not always considered as desirable to us humans. For example, by providing a digging pit or opportunities to smell new smells, or chew appropriate items, as well as considering unique preferences like whether your dog likes playing in water or rolling in dirt.
Knowing what works for your dog is essential for optimal emotional wellbeing. For more ideas about how to tailor your dog’s environment and provide enrichment to optimise their wellbeing, see Environment.
Individuality and agency
Agency refers to the capacity of your dog to make their own choices and act beyond the degree dictated by their momentary needs. It enables them to demonstrate adaptability and sophisticated communication skills. Having ‘agency’ means your dog can integrate its individuality into behaviour that will optimise its physical, mental and emotional wellbeing.
Ideas for promoting agency in dogs:
- Problem-solving. Use food puzzle toys instead of feeding from a bowl or hide their food for your dog to find
- Exploration. Provide opportunities for exploration in both familiar environments and new ones, both indoors and outdoors. Even adapting your dog’s usual indoor living space by making new areas safe for them to explore – such as the cupboard under the stairs – can provide them with the ability to express their agency.
- Play. Encourage different types of play using a variety of games and toys
- Choice. Provide choice and respect your dog’s individual needs and preferences. Keep it simple to start, then increase the difficulty or complexity as your dog’s skills progress
(See Nutrition and Environment for more enrichment ideas)
A few questions to help you get to know your dog
- What foods do they love?
- What types of reinforcement works best? (Food, play or praise)
- How and where do they like to be touched?
- What activities do they seem to enjoy most?
- Which activities make them stressed?
- How sensitive are they to the different types of sensory stimulation?
- Do they have a favourite place to sleep or rest?
- Do they have a best dog friend?
- Do they have a favourite toy?
- Do they have a different relationship with different household members? <...
- What foods do they love?
- What types of reinforcement works best? (Food, play or praise)
- How and where do they like to be touched?
- What activities do they seem to enjoy most?
- Which activities make them stressed?
- How sensitive are they to the different types of sensory stimulation?
- Do they have a favourite place to sleep or rest?
- Do they have a best dog friend?
- Do they have a favourite toy?
- Do they have a different relationship with different household members?
- What type of socialising do they enjoy? With whom? Where?
- Do they like to discover new places, or do they prefer to walk a familiar route?
- How do they best like to interact with their environment?
- How do they behave when left to their own devices in the garden or yard?
Key Points
01
Individuality is the sum of all characteristics, temperament, learned behaviours and personality traits that make a dog unique.
02
Individuality is influenced by nature factors such as genetics, life stage, sex; and nurture factors like past experiences and neutering status.
03
Personality and behavioural traits vary greatly between the same breed – even more than between breeds. You can’t predict behaviour based on breed.
04
Providing opportunities for your dog to express their individuality is key to optimising their emotional wellbeing.
05
Ensure your family and lifestyle are truly compatible with a potential dog’s individual needs and preferences, as well those of current pets.
06
You can nurture your dog’s individuality by tailoring decisions about their socialisation, healthcare, nutrition and enrichment to their unique needs and preferences.
References
- Boyko, AR, 2011, The domestic dog: man’s best friend in the genomic era, Genome Biol. Vol 12(2), pp. 216
- Gosling, SD, Kwan, VSY, John, OP, 2003, A Dog’s Got Personality: A Cross-Species Comparative Approach to Personality Judgements in Dogs and Humans, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol 85(6), 1161-1169
- Burch, MR, 2020, Assessment of Canine Temperament: Predictive or Prescriptive?, International Journal of Comparative Psychology, Vol 33
- Fratkin JL, Sinn, DL, Patall EA, Gosling SD, 2013, Personality Consistency in Dogs: A Meta-Analysis, PLOS One, 8(1): e54907
- Ley, JM & Bennett, PC, 2007, Understanding Personality by Understanding Companion Dogs, Anthrozoös, Vol 20 (2), 113-124
- Mellor, DJ, 2016, Updating Animal Welfare Thinking: Moving beyond the “Five Freedoms” towards “A Life Worth Living”, Animals, Vol 6(3), 21
- McFarland, SE, Defining Animal Agency with Sarah E. McFarland, Available at: https://www.animalsandsociety.org/resources/resources-for-scholars/defining-human-animal-studies-an-asi-video-project/defining-animal-agency-with-sarah-mcfarland/, Accessed: 03 February 2022
- Pytlike Zillig, LM, Hemenover, SH, & Diesnstbier, RA, 2002, What Do We Assess when We Assess a Big 5 Trait? A Content Analysis of the Affective, Behavioural, and Cognitive Processes Represented in Big 5 Personality Inventories, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, Vol 28(6), doi: 10.1177/0146167202289013
- Ley, J, Bennett, P & Coleman, G, 2008, Personality dimensions that emerge in companion canines, Applied Animal Behaviour Science, Vol 100(3-4), pp: 305-317
- Svartberg, K, & Forkman, B, 2002, Personality traits in the domestic dog (Canis familiaris). Applied Animal Behaviour Science. Vol 79, 133–155
- McMillan, F.D., 2017, Behavioral and psychological outcomes for dogs sold as puppies through pet stores and/or born in commercial breeding establishments: Current knowledge and putative cause, Journal of Veterinary Behaviour, 19, 14-26.
- Turcsán, B, Range, F, Virányi, Z, et al., 2021, Birds of a feather flock together? Percieved personality matching in owner-dog dyads, Applied Animal Behaviour Science, Vol 140(3-4), 154-160
- Patronek, GJ, & Bradley, J, 2016, No better than flipping a coin: Reconsidering canine behavior evaluations in animal shelters, Journal of Veterinary Behavior, Vol 15, pp. 66-77
- Mornemont, KM, Coleman, GJ, Toukhsati, S, & Bennett, PC, 2014, Development of the behavioural assessment for rehoming K9’s (B.A.R.K.) protocol, Applied Animal Behaviour Science, Vol 151, pp. 75-83
- Serpell, JA. (2021) About the C-BARQ. Available at: https://vetapps.vet.upenn.edu/cbarq/about.cfm (Accessed: 19 December 2021)
- Bray, EE, Otto, CM, Udell, MAR, et al., 2021, Enhancing the Selection and Performance of Working Dogs, Frontiers in Veterinary Science., doi: 10.3389/fvets.2021.644431
- Kempermann, G., 2019, Environmental enrichment, new neurons and the neurobiology of individuality. Nature Reviews, 20, 235-245.
- McGreevy, PD, Wilson, B, Starling, MJ, & Serpell, JA, 2018, Behavioural risks in male dogs with minimal lifetime exposure to gonadal hormones may complicate population-control benefits of desexing, PLOS One, DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0196284
- Starling, M, Fawcett, A, Wilson, B, et al., 2019, Behavioural risks in female dogs with minimal lifetime exposure to gonadal hormones, PLOS One, DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0223709
- McMillian, FD, Serpell, JA, Duffy DL, Masaoud, E, et al 2013, Differences in behavioral characteristics between dogs obtained as puppies from pet stores and those obtained from noncommercial breeders, JAVMA, 242, 1359-1363.